Section II: Investigation

 

The black civil rights movement was a long struggle for freedom that saw “a distinctive, even exceptional, moment” in the 1960s[1]. The traditional view of the civil rights movement was very male orientated and hidden contributions were often neglected or overlooked. These hidden factors include the role of women in the movement, which this investigation aims to uncover.

 

Why did these traditional views of a male dominated movement exist? During the time women played an important role but were not as recognised. A great amount of significance was placed on predominant male leaders like Martin Luther King and Malcolm X because media attention was directed at them. The media historians analyse from the 1960s manipulates the story of the movement by not being able to show every account, often excluding how “activists were [also] women… not just elite men”[2]. These famous leaders were important and helped drive the movement, however it did mean that women were not as acknowledged.

 

The small amount of women with prominent leadership positions as well as lacking media attention hides their significance. One of the most well known female activists, Rosa Parks helped spark the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 led by Martin Luther King. Parks was provided with media attention for helping start the movement, however the focus then switched to King and his leadership. Despite Parks’ media coverage, the movement did not really acknowledge that she was also secretary of the “National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People” (NAACP) and had predominant focus on King[3]. The importance of women can be overlooked because of different media focus and because there were not many women with superior leadership positions like King. They did not have the ability to explain their role in the media due to lack of females in congress and equal rights for women. This did not hinder female importance; it only meant that their recognition was not always considered.

 

Their role was also overlooked as mentioned by Shirley Chisholm, the first black congresswoman. She says in her famous speech to congress in 1969, “The unspoken assumption is that women… do not have the executive ability, orderly minds, leadership skills and are too emotional”[4]. The importance of women is not always recognised because society did not view women in the same way as men. This changed in the 1960s when women started becoming more active in the movement.

 

New perspectives of the importance of women have also changed because of the comparison between the radical turn in the 1960s and the more passive movement prior. There is now more evidence to demonstrate this, which can alter perspectives. The Brown vs. Board of Education Act of 1955 eventually made political change, however only three years later in 1957 The Little Rock Nine incident occurred because “the Supreme Court did not immediately [implement] its ruling”[5]. The movement slowed down in the 1950s, however evidence can demonstrate how after this women helped radicalise the movement, therefore changing perspectives.

 

In the early 1960s, evidence highlight how the movement started to take a radical turn aided by an increase in female participation, demonstrating how new perspectives can be formed. SNCC was created in 1960 after a student meeting organised by Ella Baker[6]. Angeline Butler was also one of the founding members of SNCC and was actively involved in the movement. Butler said that “during three years of demonstrations… I don’t believe we ever felt a difference between [men and women]”[7]. After three years of participating and organising sit-ins all over Southern USA, Butler believed that women were equal to men. Women were given political voices when SNCC was created, and “instead of an occasional bus boycott… riskier activism” occurred[8]. This chance for women to feel equal to men inspired confidence and women contributed more especially through SNCC. Helen O’Neal-McCray went on to work for the “Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee”[9], whilst Joan Trumpauer Mulholland participated “in the Jackson Movement’s direct action campaigns”[10]. Diane Nash was a major strategist “for the SCLC’s 1965 voting rights campaign”[11]. Nash was also “valued by the staffs of both SNCC and SCLC” demonstrating how women also made inspirational differences just like King and Malcolm X but were not always recognised[12].

 

The beginning of SNCC and increasing female participation helped introduce the Freedom Rides of 1961, also highlighting a different perspective of the movement. In 1946, Irene Morgan refused to leave her seat on a segregated bus in Virginia and it can be believed that “there wouldn’t be any Freedom Rides without [her]”[13]. The Morgan vs. Virginia case banned Jim Crow laws and segregation in interstate travel buses. Southern USA however never obeyed these laws, which inspired the Freedom Rides. Thirteen men and women, both black and white students from SNCC and CORE boarded the Greyhound Freedom Riders bus, travelling from Washington DC to New Orleans. The students knew they risked being arrested or killed, which women had never really faced before. King warned the Freedom Riders that there would be a mob of violent attacks in Alabama. A mob of over 200 people violently attacked and firebombed the bus, brutally injuring and traumatising the passengers. Despite this, Nash urged them to continue the protest because giving up would create the idea that “all you have to do to stop a nonviolent campaign is inflict massive violence”[14]. This went on to inspire more Freedom Rides until eventually there were 430 freedom riders and real social change. The movement achieved its goal of major media traction because “the whole world is watching”[15]. Worldwide attention was drawn to the civil rights movement and JF Kennedy, the President called legislation into banning Jim Crow laws indefinitely. The Freedom Rides helped highlight the leadership of Diane Nash, open doors for female participation and radicalise the movement, a view that may not have been considered previouly.

 

The radical effect of the Freedom Rides helped push the Civil Rights Act in 1964. The act was “considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement”, ending segregation in public areas and banning employment discrimination[16]. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act was passed, making these laws successful in bringing women into the movement even more. In 1964, Shirley Chisholm won a seat in the New York State Assembly and in 1969 became the first black Congresswoman. Chisholm served on different committees and addressed the House of Representatives proposing “the Equal Rights Amendment, which would guarantee equal rights for all, regardless of colour or gender”[17]. She was extremely active in the movement and encouraged the activism of women by serving on the Advisory Council of the National Organisation of Women and the National Political Congress of Black Women, helping women find their voice.

 

It was only after the 1960s that the significance of women in the civil rights movement began to be recognised by historians. This investigation shows that without the involvement and leadership of women, the achievements in the 1960s would not have been so great. This does not diminish the role of men but it does ensure that a one-sided portrayal is not dominating the debates around the movement.